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DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
BUREAU OF FISHERIES 

HUGH M. SMITH, CommJesioner 



THE MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE 
ATLANTIC COAST 



By Rob Leon Greer 



APPENDIX in TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER 
OF FISHERIES FOR 1914 




Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 811 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

X9I5 



MoMcrvp^ 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 811. 



Plate I. 




DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

BUREAU OF FISHERIES 

HUGH M. SMITH, Commissioner 



THE MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE 
ATLANTIC COAST 



By Rob Leon Greer 



APPENDIX III TO THE REPORT OF THE U. S. COMMISSIONER 
OF FISHERIES FOR X914 




Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 811 



^37ASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1915 



^^Ih 



,tA 



S 



ADDITIONAL COPIES 

OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM 

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V 



IV (IF 5: 

k?U 14 1915 






THE MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST 

By Rob Leon Greer 



Appendix III to the Report of the U. S. Commissioner 
of Fisheries for 1 914 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

History and extent of the menhaden fishery 5 

Factories 6 

Vessels 7 

Purse and striker boats 8 

Fishing apparatus 8 

Season and fishing grounds 10 

Fishing methods 11 

Capture of edible fish 13 

Unloading and weighing or measuring 14 

Cooking 15 

Pressing 16 

Screw X)ress • 18 

Drying 19 

Oil 21 

Fishermen 26 

Factory employees 26 

Laws governing menhaden fishing 27 

3 



THE MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 



By Rob Leon Greer. 



HISTORY AND EXTENT OF THE MENHADEN FISHERY. 

The taking of menhaden for fertilizing purposes dates back to the 
early settlers who first placed them on their ground as whole fish; 
later, when the value of the oil was discovered, it was extracted by 
placing the fish in casks, covering them with water, and compressing 
with weighted boards. In this process, the fish soon became putre- 
fied, the oil cells disintegrated, and the oil floated to the surface and 
was skimmed off from time to time. The first process of cooking was 
by the use of kettles in which the fish were boiled ; the mass was then 
placed in casks and treated as above, with the result that much more 
oil was secured than before. The residue was then used as fertiUzer. 

The next advancement in the industry, which had been of little 
importance up to this time, was when steam cooking superseded the 
use of the kettles. The first steam factory was established in Rhode 
Island; others were subsequently erected on Shelter Island, N. Y., 
and in Connecticut and Maine. In December, 1866, the steamer 
Ranger, hailing from Greenport, N. Y., was sent to Virginia. She 
was equipped with the necessary apparatus for cooking the fish and 
extracting the oil on board, and so far as is known was the first floating 
factory. The fish were caught in purse seines operated from sailing 
vessels. She remained there only about 11 days during that year, 
but returned each of the two succeeding years. The first factories 
built in Virginia were estabhshed by northern companies in 1868; one 
was on Tanners Creek and another on Back River, though it was not 
until the following year that the work was taken up at ReedviUe, in 
Northumberland County, which place is now the most important 
fish-scrap center on the coast. The first menhaden factory in North 
Carolina was built on Harkers Island, in Core Sound, in 1865. 

During the year 1912 there were 48 menhaden factories on the 
Atlantic coast, having a total valuation of $3,625,983, distributed by 
States as follows: Maine, 1; Connecticut, 2; New York, 5, including 
one floating factory; New Jersey, 5; Delaware, 2; Maryland, 1; 
Virginia, 19; North Carolina, 12; and Florida, 1. The vessels engaged 
in fishing for menhaden for these factories numbered 147, valued at 



6 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

$3,456,792; the total net tonnage was 13,566. Of these 118 were 
steamers, vakied at $3,303,292, and 29 were gasohne boats, valued 
at $153,500. Two hundred and seventy-four purse semes, valued at 
$271,000, and 386 seine and striker boats, valued at $83,135, were 
used. The number of persons employed in and about the factories was 
2,159, their salaries and wages for the year amounting to $560,834; 
the number of fishermen engaged was 3,735, and their wages 
amounted to $1,018,150. The total number of menhaden utihzed 
was 1,061,843,750, which yielded 6,651,203 gallons of oil, valued at 
$1,551,990, and 88,520 tons of scrap, valued at $2,138,165. 

The degree of success attending this important fishery, which is 
prosecuted annually, varies greatly; the number caught and also the 
fatness of the fish is much greater some years than others; conse- 
quently, similar catches do not always yield similar quantities of oil. 
The catch of 1911 was probably one of the largest ever known and 
the large dividends paid that year gave the industry such an impetus 
that four new factories were established during that season and eight 
in 1912; in addition to these, four new ones were being operated in 1913 
and two others were under construction. It may be incidentally stated 
that the fishing during the season of 1913 was practically a failure, at 
least two of the factories having been forced into receivers' hands. 
Despite this increase in the number of factories during the last three 
years, there are not now as many as have been operated during some 
previous years. But when it is considered that the present-day 
plants are so much larger and the modern equipment so greatly 
facilitates the handling of the fish, the possibilities are probably 
greater to-day than ever before. 

FACTORIES. 

A menhaden factory should be within a few hours' run of the fishing 
grounds and also on deep water, to avoid the necessity of building a 
long wharf to reach from the plant to a channel of sufficient depth to 
float the steamers, many of which have considerable draft. This, 
however, is not always possible; one factory has a wharf 1,100 feet 
long, and at another place the entire plant is built over the water. 
The elevator or other device for removing the fish from the hold of 
the steamer and the device for measuring the fish are always placed 
on the outer end of the wharf; the "raw box" may be either on the 
wharf immediately back of the elevator or on the other end near the 
factory. 

The chief desire in drawing plans for the building is to have the 
machinery so arranged as to facihtate the handUng of the fish, and 
for this reason the most of the buildings have two stories. The cooker 
is generally on the ground floor quite close to the raw box; in some 
plants it is not in the building but is placed on the outside with only 



MENHADEN INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 7 

a roof to protect it from the weather. The presses are generally 
placed on the second floor and the oil tanks are at a lower level, so 
that the oil and ,water flowing from the presses reach them without 
the use of a pump; these tanks are frequently found on the outside 
of the building with no covering, though in most of the northern plants 
they are under roof. The drier is on the ground floor, either in the 
building or under a shed. The equipment of the average factory, 
therefore, consists of an elevator, measuring device, raw box, cooker, 
press, drier, and oil tanks, with the necessary bucket, chain, or screw 
conveyors for moving the material from one part of the plant to 
another. 

The power of the boilers and engines naturally depends upon the 
equipment of the factory; two 125-horsepower boilers, costing about 
$1,500 each, are sufficient for a plant having one cooker, two presses, 
and one drier; the cost of the entire equipment of such a plant is 
approximately $24,000 and the capacity is about 600,000 fish in a 
day of 12 hours. The largest factory on the coast has a daily capacity 
of about two and a half millions of fish and employs ujjward of 200 
men. 

In addition to the main factory there are several other buildings 
set apart; these include the office, the "scrap room," in which the 
scrap is bagged and stored until such time as it is to be shipped, the 
mess house, and the sleeping quarters for the men. Some of the 
factories built during recent years have cement floors, this material 
having found favor among the operators because it is more durable 
and also more easily kept clean than wood; and many of them are 
lighted by electricity generated on the premises, one having installed, 
in addition to a plant for lighting, electric motors for operating the 
machinery. 

VESSELS, 

In the early days of menhaden fishing the vessels were all schooners 
and sloops; steamers were introduced some time during the seventies, 
but the sailboats were also employed for a number of years after the 
advent of the steamers. The present-day steamers are built some- 
what on the tug model, with an extra high bow, which serves a two- 
fold purpose, that of rendering them more seaworthy and giving the 
pilot the advantage of a much greater scope of the sea. The quarters 
are forward and the engine, boilers, and bunkers toward the stern, 
leaving the hold in the middle of the boat where the deck is low so 
as to facilitate the transfer of the fish from the net. The auxiliary 
schooners, which are aU owned in North Carolina, with the exception 
of two in New Jersey and one in Maryland, have practically the same 
arrangement. While the total number of vessels now employed in 
this industry is not as great as some previous reports have shown, the 

69271°— 15 2 



8 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

fact that they are now all propelled by steam or gasolme gives them 
a great advantage ovex' the sailing craft formerly used. They can go 
farther in search of the fish and can return to the factory very much 
more quickly when a load is secured and are not so often delayed by 
.inclement weather. Many of the steamers now in use are lighted by 
electricity and also have searchlights and are modern in every detail. 
The largest one in use during 1912 has a capacity of over a million 
fish, but a larger one was built in 1913 at a cost of $100,000 and with 
a capacity of at least one and one-half million fish. The largest gaso- 
line boat fishing for menhaden has a capacity of 400,000 fish and is 
owned in New Jersey. Twenty-seven new steamers were built in 
1911 and 1912 and several new ones were in course of construction in 
1913. It is seen from the above figures that the Chesapeake region 
leads in both the number of factories and the number of steamers in 
use. 

PURSE AND STRIKER BOATS. 

The purse or seine boats must necessarily be built very strong to 
withstand the great strain to which they are subjected; they fre- 
quently put out m rough seas, and there is also considerable strain 
when handlmg the seine. Cedar is mostly used in their construction, 
for both the planking and the ceiling. In the stern a platform meas- 
urmg about 3 feet fore and aft is built 10 inches below the gunwale; 
upon this the captain stands to direct the movements of the boat; a 
similar platform is in the bow and upon this stands the man who 
handles the cork liae when pursing the net. There is also a platform 
or floor in the bottom of the boat. There are four thwarts, three of 
which are forward and the fourth immediately forward of the after 
platform referred to above; the mtervening space is for stowing the 
seine. The stern of these boats is built about 2 inches higher than 
the bow so that they may be properly balanced when the seine, most 
of the weight of which is toward the stern, is aboard. The dimensions 
are as foUows: Length, 28 to 33 feet, though the preferable length is 
32 feet; beam, 6 to 7 feet; depth, 2 feet to 2 feet 10 inches amidships. 
The cost ranges from S275 to $400. 

The striker boats are simply small rowboats, carvel built, with a 
sharp bow and square stern.. They are about 12 feet long, 4^ feet 
beam, and 1 foot 9 inches deep amidships. The striker usually stands 
when rowing, on a small platform in the bottom of the boat. The 
cost of these boats is $100 to $120. 

FISHING APPARATUS. 

By far the greater portion of menhaden handled at the factories is 
caught in purse seines, about 98.7 per cent of the entire catch of the 
year 1912 being taken with that form of apparatus; the greater part 



MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 9 

of the rest was taken in pound nets fished in Raritan Bay, N. J., and 
converted into scrap at a factory located at Port Monmouth, in the 
same State. Some were also caught in pound nets in New York and 
Virginia. Only one factory, one of the smaller ones in North Caro- 
lina and probably the smallest on the entire coast, depends entirely 
on the shore fisheries for its supply of fish; their apparatus consists 
of gill nets 175 to 200 yards long, 5 feet deep, with 1^-inch mesh. 
They are fished from small sailboats having a capacity of about 7,000 
fish each and carrying one man each. 

The purse semes in general use are about 135 to 200 fathoms long, 
9 to 10 fathoms deep, with If -inch mesh; the size of the twine used for 
knitting them varies in the different parts according to the tension to 
be applied, the heaviest bemg in that part called the "bunt" for the 
reason that it bears practically all the weight of the fish when the 
seine is pui^sed ; this consists of a square of 400 to 500 meshes in the 
center of the net and it is made of no. 15 and no. 18 cotton twine. 
The other parts of the net are made of no. 20-9 and no. 20-12 twine. 
The cork and ring lines at the top and bottom, respectively, are both 
no. 12 thread, right; there are two additional fines, no. 9 thread, left, 
to which the seine is hung. These run parallel to the cork and ring 
lines the entire length of the net and are lashed to these lines at 
regular intervals. 

The four lines indicated above are all manila rope. The purse line 
is no. 36 thread, Russian hemp, about 150 fathoms long. The brass 
rings through which the purse fine passes are 4 inches diameter, 
weigh IJ pounds, and cost 50 cents each; these are suspended from 
the lower line on beckets or loops each 6 to 12 inches long and 3^ to 5 
fathoms apart. The final rings are placed about 10 fathoms from the 
ends of the net. In order that the center of the net may be located, 
the "ring" placed at that point is shaped more fike a stirrup, so that it 
may easily be distinguished from the others. The corks vary in size 
from 3 to i^ inches in diameter, the larger ones being placed at and 
near the center of the seine in bunches of three or four quite close 
together, so arranged because the greatest weight is on that part 
when the net is pursed ; the smaUer corks are toward the ends of the 
net and placed farther apart than the others. From 2,200 to 3,200 
corks, costmg from $30 to $45 per thousand, are used on a purse seine. 
The beckets, to which the "hank" fines on the gunwale of the steamer 
are made fast for the purpose of holding the net close to the vessel 
when the fish are being transferred, are arranged along the top of the 
net at the center of the bunt at intervals of about 2 feet; there are 20 
to 24 beckets, each about 1 foot long. To prevent rotting, the top 
and bottom lines are tarred, but the purse line is not so treated, 
because it would become too stiff and consequently difficult to handle; 
for the same reason the net is tarred but once, and that when new. 



10 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

The subsequent treatment for its preservation consists of a pickling 
process as follows: After the day's fishing is done, about 4 bushels of 
coarse salt are sprinkled over each "ami" of the seine as it hes in the 
seine boats; 12 to 15 buckets of sea water are then poured over each 
ami, and as that collects in the bottom of the boats it is pumped into 
buckets and poured over the twine — the same water, or brine, as it 
has now become, being used over and over until 75 to 100 bucketfuls 
have been poured ; this is repeated in the morning and perhaps sev- 
eral times during the day, if the net has not been put overboard and 
so much sea water taken aboard with it that the "pickle" is too much 
diluted to be of further service. 

When the twine is very slimy, as is frequently the case after a haul 
has been made, it is washed by a stream of water from the fire hose on 
the steamer. The cost of a seine completely rigged for fishing is about 
$1,000; and they are seldom used more than one season. The "long 
tom" is simply a large piece of lead with flat bottom and rounded top, 
weighmg about 300 pounds, which is placed upon the purse line by 
the use of two snatch blocks which are fiixed m its sides and dropped 
overboard after the net has aU been paid out, to hold the ends of the 
net before it has been pursed. An eyebolt is fixed in the top of 
the tom for the attachment of a line used for the purpose of hauUng 
the w;eight back into the boat. The cost of a tom is about $30. 

SEASON AND FISHING GROUNDS. 

As the menhaden is a migratory fish, the season naturally differs 
on various parts of the coast; the location of the factories governs 
to some extent the range covered by the fishing steamers, it being 
desirable to remain close enough to their respective factories to run in 
and discharge their fish before they putrefy; but the steamers some- 
times get so far away that they find it advantageous to sell their catch 
to some other factory. As the fish appear to seek the coast the 
steamers seldom go more than 10 or 15 miles out to sea. While men- 
haden occur in Florida tliroughout the year, the bulk of the catch is 
taken from April 1 to November 1. The small catch in winter, 
according to the fishermen, is owing to the fact that the fish seldom 
appear at the surface of the water durmg that season. The steam- 
ers fishing in Florida seldom go farther than 10 or 15 miles north 
or south from the mouth of the St. Johns River. Some fishing is 
also done in that river and Nassau Sound, but the catch in those 
waters is inconsiderable. The spring and fall "runs" determine the 
season for the North Carolina fishermen; the northward move- 
ment generally ends about June 15 to 20 and very little fishing is 
done from that time until the schools reappear southbound during 
late September or early October. The bulk of the catch taken by 
the boats from this State is from outside waters, generally from Cape 



MENHADEN INDUSTKY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 11 

Fear to Ocracoke Inlet; some are also caught in Core Sound. The 
steamers hailing from Chesapeake Bay region generally begin opera- 
tions the first or second week in May; the work is chiefly at sea from 
the beginning of the season until the first of July, and during that 
month and throughout August and September practically all the 
fishing is done in the bay, from which it is estimated that fully 75 per 
cent of the entire catch is taken. From September until the close of 
the season, which is usually November 10 to 15, the vessels go outside 
again. The range covered by the Virginia vessels is from Cape Hat- 
teras on the south to Sandy Hook on the north. The season and 
fishing grounds for the Delaware and New Jersey steamers is practi- 
cally the same as that given for those from Virginia, except that they 
are excluded from Chesapeake Bay. The New York and Connecti- 
cut menhaden fishermen have a shorter season and their range differs 
in that they seldom go farther south than the Virginia capes; their 
northern limit is rarely extended beyond Boston Bay, though the 
northern limit of migration of the menhaden is the Bay of Fundy, but 
they are not found in sufficient number to warrant going farther than 
is here stated. Schools of menhaden were reported in Casco Bay a 
few years ago but very few were caught. Some are also caught in 
Long Island Sound, Vineyard Sound, and Gardiners Bay. 

FISHING METHODS. 

The time of the steamer's departure from the factory depends 
chiefly upon the running distance to the fishing grounds; they are 
usually in readiness and off by 4 o'clock in the morning, though they 
frequently go earlier. It is the general belief among the fishermen 
that the early morning is the best time for fishing. Very httle atten- 
tion need be given to the tides when fishing offshore, but in inside 
waters the tide is often so strong as to render the handling of the 
seine difficult, and better results are obtained when working on slack 
water. As soon as the fishing grounds are reached the captain and 
the mate repair to the "crow's nest" at the mast, from which point of 
vantage they survey the surrounding waters to locate the fish, an 
experienced eye readily distinguishing the reddish hue which indi- 
cates their presence. When a school is sighted, those aloft rapidly 
descend and prepare to "lower away" the seine boats; the striker 
drops off in advance and rows toward the fish to keep trace of them 
and indicate to the captain, by signals made with an oar, the direction 
in which they are moving. The captain is in charge of one of the 
boats and the mate directs the movements of the other. 

At the opportune time the seine, one-half of which is stowed in each 
boat, is thrown out by the "seine setters," the oarsmen rapidly row- 
ing in a circular direction in order that they may surround the fish; 
the striker in the meantime has taken a position on the opposite side 



12 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

of the school and by splashing the water with an oar endeavors to 
prevent their escape. When the two boats meet a large hook at- 
tached to a line made fast to the bow of the mate's boat is caught 
under the center thwart of the captain's boat to prevent them drift- 
ing apart. The tom is then dropped overboard and the men begin 
hauling both ends of the purse line through two snatch blocks which 
are attached to an upright iron support about 18 inches high called 
the "crane" and which is fitted in the port gunwale of the captain's 
boat about 10 feet from the bow; the hne is carried directly across to 
two snatch blocks hung to the starboard gunwale, the one end continu- 
ing on toward the stern and through another block attached to the 
same gunwale and the other end going to the men in the mate's boat. 
The ends of the net are hauled into the boats as it is being pursed and 
arranged in an orderly manner so as to be in readiness for the next 
set; when the rings are all in, the tom line is placed in one of the blocks 
on the crane and the tom hauled aboard. The hook referred to above 
as holding the boats together is then released and the bows are lashed 
together. 

It is sometimes necessary for the striker to tend the cork line to 
guard against its being submerged when the fish are all in the bunt of 
the net. When all is in reacUness the captain signals to the pilot to 
bring the steamer alongside for the purpose of transferring the fish to 
the vessel hold. The hanks, which hang along the gunwale, are made 
fast to the beckets on the bunt of the seine so as to hold it close to 
the vessel, and the baiUng begins. The baihng net is simply a bag 
4 feet deep, made of cotton twine and hung to a circular frame about 
4 feet in diameter, made of 1-inch iron; it has a wooden handle approxi- 
mately 12 feet long. The net is suspended from a boom hung to the 
mast directly over the hold and so arranged as to swing back and 
forth; it is raised by a small engine placed on the deck a little aft of 
amidships. The fish are dumped by means of a line attached to the 
bottom of the net and passing through a block hung to the boom 
above. Two other fines attached to the rim of the net, one held by 
a man standing on the deck of the steamer and the other by a man in 
one of the seine boats, are designed to assist in guiding the net as it is 
raised and lowered. The handle is controlled by a man standing on 
the deck along the gunwale. , 

It is possible to handle fish at the rate of a half milHon an hour with 
this net. When a set is made and the seine foimd to be empty when 
pursed it is said to be a ''stab"; when they begin paying out the net 
and the fish are seen to disappear before it is aU out, it is a ''pull- 
back." The usual time required for making a set and pursing the 
seine is 30 to 40 minutes. 

No fishing is done at night; the steamers always make some harbor, 
preferably their home port, but if too far from that they run in to 
some place more convenient. 



MENHADEN" INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 13 

CAPTURE OF EDIBLE FISH. 

Much has been said dui'ing past years regarding the use of edible 
fish taken in the menhaden nets for the manufacture of fish scrap. 
That the number of such fish actually taken in purse seines with the 
menhaden is, however, too inconsiderable for discussion seems to be 
conclusively shown. While the menhaden are being taken aboard the 
steamer the cook usually stands over the hold with a long pole, in the 
end of which is a hook, for the purpose of removing the edible fish 
which are wanted for the ship's mess; his keen eye misses few mack- 
erel, trout, etc., but even with this vigilance he does not secure 
enough to provide food for the crew. The writer spent a day on one 
of the largest steamers owned in Virginia, and in a total catch of 
240,000 menhaden for the day there were only 8 mackerel and 10 
bluefish. At times, however, the vessels may strike a school of some 
edible species and carry them to market; it is probably safe to say that 
such fish are never converted into scrap. The Virginia captains have 
explicit instructions to avoid taking food fish, and an instance is on 
record of one of the most proficient captains in the business being 
dismissed for disobeying the order. 

Considerable quantities of alewives, caught in pound nets fished in 
Chesapeake Bay and tributaries, are sold to the menhaden factories 
located at various points on the bay ; the nets are fished primarily for 
the purpose of supplying the alewife packing houses, but the catch is 
frequently greater than the capacity of the houses and the fishermen 
appeal to the menhaden factories to send their steamers to take the 
surplus fish off their hands. This custom prevails especially about 
the head of the bay in Maryland waters, where the catch of the 
pound nets includes not only alewives but many perch which are too 
small to be marketed. 

The argument offered in defense of tliis is that inasmuch as the fish 
are trapped and die in the nets it is better to sell them to be converted 
into fertihzer, and thus serve the farmer and consumers generally, 
than to pollute the water by throwing them overboard. Despite the 
claim by the factory owners who send steamers after these fish that 
they do so at a loss and would rather not be troubled with them, 
and that they would welcome legislation prohibiting handling them, 
there seems to be a spirit of jealousy among them, and when the first 
steamer goes others usually follow. An additional and very strong 
argument against this practice is the storm of protest and condemna- 
tion brought upon the menhaden factories by various persons, who 
gain an undue impression of the number of edible fish that are made 
into scrap. 

Large quantities of alewife cuttings from the packing houses are 
utilized at the menhaden factories, but it was impossible to secure 
definite data regarding the amount, as it is not kept separate from the 



14 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

alewives and perch handled ; neither is the oil and scrap thus derived 
kept separate from that made from the menhaden. It has been stated, 
however, that the major portion of what is shown in the bulletin as 
"scrap fish and alewife cuttings" was the latter. Some sea robins, 
sweMsh, and skates are taken in pound nets fished near Promised 
Land, N. Y., and sold to menhaden factories at that place; they are 
called "evilfish" and are not regarded as being edible, though the fish- 
ermen sometimes "saddle" the skates by removing the pectoral fins, 
which are sent to Fulton Market, New York, where they are sold 
chiefly to the foreign trade. These fish are not especially desired at 
the factories, for several reasons; they are not caught in sufficient 
quantities to render handhng them remunerative ; they produce very 
Httle oil, and they do not pass freely through the modern machinery 
because of the bone in the sea robins and the cartilaginous character 
of the skates, which when cooked become so viscous that they stick 
in the presses. 

No special effort is made by the fishermen of the Atlantic coast to 
catch dogfish, but many are taken on the trawl fines and thrown 
overboard; it has been suggested that it might be profitable for the 
menhaden factories to work them up into scrap, but considering the 
number of fish required for making a ton of scrap and the price re- 
ceived for the latter it is doubtful if the factories could afford to pay 
the fishermen enough to render it remunerative. 

Very Uttle is known by the menhaden factory operators about 
handling dogfish and other sharks and the machinery as now used 
is not adapted to this purpose. Some sharks are caught in the purse 
seines fished in Florida waters, chiefly during the months of May and 
June. They are not cooked nor cut into small pieces, but the whole 
shark is thrown on the acidulated scrap heap, where the action of 
the acid will in time disintegrate it. 

UNLOADING AND WEIGHING OR MEASURING. 

In former years the fish were aU removed from the vessel hold by 
means of tubs each having a capacity of 500 fish. While this method 
is now regarded as antiquated, it is yet in use in a few of the smaller 
factories. The tubs are filled by hand and raised by means of a block 
and tackle and the fish are dumped into bins or smaU cars which 
convey them to the factory. All the larger and best-equipped 
factories now use a bucket elevator for removing the fish from the 
vessel. This is very similar to that in use in grain elevators and has 
proved very satisfactory in fish factories. The elevator is so arranged 
that it may be lowered into the hold of the vessel, where the fish are 
fed into it by the ''fish gang/' consisting of four or more men, and 
carried up to the weighing or measuring device. One of these eleva- 
tors can handle 1,000 barrels of fish in an hour with an engine of 
20 to 25 horsepower. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 811 



Plate 




FISH MEASURING MACHINE. 



MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 15 

The measuring device found in most of the plants is shaped like a 
cylinder and mounted so as to revolve on an axis. It is divided into 
four segments, each of which has a space of 22,000 cubic inches, and 
will accommodate a bulk of fish which is taken arbitrarily as 1,000 in 
number; this is based on the standard measurement of 22 cubic 
inches for one, or 22,000 cubic inches for 1,000 menhaden. The num- 
ber of fish to each 22,000 cubic inches naturally varies with their 
size. When one segment is filled the cylinder revolves and dumps 
the fish and the next segment is brought into place to be filled. 

Another form consists of two weighing hoppers, with a dial indi- 
cator of 1 ton capacity. When one hopper has received the required 
weight of fish they are diverted into the other by means of an 
apron-hke device which is shifted by a lever worked by the man in 
charge of the elevator house. Two of the factories have recently 
installed conveying weighers which are similar in construction to the 
ordinary platform scales; the track on which the belt which carries 
the fish moves is suspended from the weighing levers, which with the 
integrator are inclosed in a sheet-iron case. The fish are dumped 
from the measuring device into a conveyor, usually of the bucket 
type, which carries them either directly to the cooker or to the ''raw 
box" or bin in which they are stored until such time as they can 
be used. These bins are all about the same depth, 10 to 12 feet, but 
vary in length and breadth according to the capacity of the plant 
and the number of steamers employed. The largest one in use is 
about 25 feet wide and 225 feet long. The floor slants toward the 
middle, where a conveyor moves in a close box with a covering which 
may be removed in sections when the fish are to be taken from the 
bin and conveyed to the cooker. 

COOKING. 

The fish are generally cooked at night as soon as the steamers 
reach port and discharge their catch. It is desirable to cook them as 
soon after they are taken from the water as possible, because they 
putrefy quite rapidly and are so much more difficult to handle in that 
condition. Cooking has the effect of breaking up the fat cells or sacs 
and permitting a ready hberation of the oil. The continuous steam 
cookers have gradually displaced the old-style cooking vats from 
year to year until the latter have been ahnost ehminated — North 
Carohna being the only place where they are now in use — and it is 
probable that they will be supplanted there by the modern apparatus 
if the business is sufficiently lucrative to justify the expenditure. 
The old style consists of the simple process of cooking the fish in vats 
or tanks having false bottoms beneath which are placed perforated 
steam pipes; the vats contain a sufficient quantity of water to cover 
the fish. The water is heated before the fish are put into it, the usual 
time for cooking the fish in these tanks being about 20 minutes. In 



16 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

one of the factories of North Carolina the antiquated method of 
making a fire under the vat still prevails; the vats are made of wood, 
with iron bottoms. 

The modern cookers are of the direct-steam type and operated 
continuously. The fish are fed through a hopper-like entrance into 
a steel shell or cylinder of varying lengths and diameters. A cooker 
finding much favor among the operators of menliaden factories is 
40 feet long and 2 feet in diameter; a shaft, the diameter of which 
varies with that of the cylinder from 3 inches to 4 J inches, passes 
through the center from end to end and is provided with flights so 
arranged as to act as a conveyor and keep the fish moving toward 
the discharge end. Thirty-six iron feed pipes, each three-eighths of 
an inch in diameter, enter the shell on each side quite near the bottom 
at intervals of 1 foot; this arrangement insures a complete circulation 
of the steam through the fish as they are passed through the cylinder. 
Attached to the discharge end, a little lower than the main cylinder, 
and either at right angle or parallel to the same, is a smaller shell 
about 8 feet long and 1 foot in diameter, which is designed to prevent 
the steam from escaping. The mass of cooked fish drops into this 
after passing through the cooker and is carried through by a screw 
conveyor. This is probably the most effective form of this apparatus, 
as the steam is more thoroughly distributed by being introduced be- 
neath. Other types in use differ chiefly in the manner of admitting 
the steam. In one form it is admitted through a hollow shaft 6 
inches in diameter along which at intervals of 16 inches are arranged 
sets of radial pipes screwed into the shaft at equal intervals around 
its entire circumference. These are simply sections of 1-inch iron 
piping, each 8 inches long. They are closed at the end, but each has 
three perforations through which the steam escapes to the chamber. 
These also serve as flights to move the fish toward the discharge end 
of the cylinder. Another type used in a number of factories feeds 
the steam through perforations in the shaft, which is fitted with flights 
which are simply solid pieces of iron. 

PRESSING. 

While the old-style curbs and hydraulic presses have been displaced 
to a considerable extent by the modern screw presses, they are yet in 
use in a sufficient number of factories to justify some description of 
them; in some of the plants they have been retained after the instal- 
lation of screw presses, to be used in case the latter should be disabled 
or in any other emergency that may arise. Many of the operators 
prefer them to the modern apparatus because the screw press gives 
such a great pressure that quantities of fleshy matter are forced out 
with the oil and water, with the result that the separation of these in 
the oil room is rendered more difficult and the amoimt of scrap made is 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 811. 



Plate III. 






MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 17 

lessened. This is especially true when the fish have become decom- 
posed. It has been claimed that the use of the curbs yields fully 10 
tons more of scrap from a milUon of fish than the screw presses. The 
mass of fish drops from the cooker to a screw conveyor, which feeds 
it to a bucket conveyor to be carried to the second floor, where it 
passes to a second screw conveyor extending tlu-ough the center of 
the room over the draining tanks; the box containing this conveyor 
is provided with troughs through which the mass drops to the tanks, 
where it remains over night, during which time a considerable quan- 
tity of the oil and water drains off and is carried through troughs to 
the oil tanks. 

In the morning the men get into the draining tanks and throw the 
cooked mass over into the curbs, using a large fork, the tines of which 
are close enough to retain the solid matter and yet permit a portion 
of the oil and water to run through. The most common form of curb 
now in use is a cylindrical tub provided with four wheels, about 20 
inches in diameter, so as to run on a tramway which is built alongside 
the draining tanks; the tub is 40 inches deep, 35 inches diameter at 
the top, and slightly wider at the bottom; it is constructed of 100 
beveled iron staves, three-eighths inch thick, seven-eighths inch 
wide on the outer side, and slightly wider on the inner side, with 
sufficient space left between the staves to permit the escape of the 
oil and water. The staves are securely riveted to heavy iron bands 
which encircle them, and every tenth stave widens from the center 
toward the lower end, thus giving the curb an increased width at the 
bottom so that the hard cake remaining after the pressure is relaxed 
can be more easily expelled. A hollow core, about 12 inches in 
diameter and 33 inches long, fits in the center of the curb; this is made 
of staves similar to those already described and has a rounded top 
of iron in the center of which is an eyebolt; a hook which may be 
attached to a chain working in a pulley suspended from above, or to 
a piece of wood which is laid across the top of the curb, is caught in 
this eyebolt when the pressed mass is released, to prevent the core 
dropping. The bottom of the curb is simply a piece of heavy sheet 
iron attached to the lower band of the curb by means of a loose-pin 
hinge; the opposite side of the bottom is held in place by a lathe 
which is opened by a lever when the curb is to be emptied, permitting 
the bottom to swing. The curb is attached, by means of stays on 
one of the iron bands referred to above, to a square frame of J inch 
by 2 J inch iron, which is built about it; this frame also serves as the 
axles, and the spindles on which the wheels revolve are bolted to it 
at the corners. 

When the curb is filled it is run on the railway to a point under a 
stationary head which fits closely inside the curb; as the latter is 
slowly raised by a powerful hydrauhc press the fish are pressed 



18 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

against the head and the reniaining oil and water forced out between 
the staves. The oil and water are prevented from spattering over 
the workmen when the pressure is applied by shields of metal or 
other material built around the curb, and as it is forced out it runs 
through troughs to the oil room. When the pressure is relaxed, 
the curb slowly descends to its former position on the rails and is 
pushed from beneath the head and the bottom released by the lever 
referred to above. The core is held, as has been stated above, and 
the pressed mass of fish drops through an opening in the floor to the 
room below. Another form of curb differing shghtly in construction 
from the one just described is in use in some of the plants. The iron 
bands surrounding it are fitted with latches, which open to release the 
hard cake remaining after the pressing, and the diameter of the 
cylinder is the same from top to bottom. 

SCREW PRESS. 

When the screw press is used the digested fish are conveyed 
directly from the cooker to the press, thus eliminating the draining 
tanks referred to as being used in connection with the curbs and 
effecting a saving in time and labor. The modern screw press 
consists of a horizontal tapered screw built up on a hollow shaft 
fitting closely and rotating in a similarly tapered steel-slatted curb 
with a hopper-shaped entrance 15 by 29 inches in size, into which 
the fish are fed from the conveyor. A section of the top of the curb 
may be removed, should the shaft or screw require repairing or 
cleaning. The pressure is caused by a gradual decrease in the 
size of the screw and curb, and the material must move toward the 
small end of the press as the screw turns; it can not turn with the 
screw nor slip on the curb. The hollow shaft is provided with 
perforations through which steam may be introduced directly into 
the material while it is being pressed; this is a decided advantage, 
in that it keeps the material hot and soft, a condition which permits 
a more thorough separation of the liquid from the solid matter. 
The drainage is both internal and external, the drainage space 
between the slats of the curb being supplemented by the drainage 
holes in the shaft. 

One form of screw press is 18 feet long, or 23 feet including frame 
and gearing, has a capacity of 80,000 to 100,000 fish per hour, and 
costs $5,000. Another is 12 feet long, or 17 feet including frame 
and gearing, with a capacity of about 40,000 fish per hour, and costs 
$3,500. The larger press requires a 50-horsepower engine, and the 
smaller one may be operated with an engine of 35 hoi-sepower. 
Another press very similar to the above is fitted with a cone capable 
of longitudinal adjustment on the hollow shaft and rotating with 
th e same. The opening through which the pressed fish are discharged 



U. S. B. P.— Doc. 811. 



Plate IV. 




U. S. B. F— Doc. 811. 



Plate v. 




MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 19 

is controlled by this cone and the pressure applied to the material 
while in the press is thus regulated. The oil and water collect 
beneath the press on the floor, which is made of concrete in many 
of the factories, and runs through troughs or pipes to the oil tanks 
for further treatment. According to the information available, there 
are 4 pounds of oil, 46 pounds of water, and 50 pounds of scrap in 
100 pounds of the material as it leaves the press. 

DRYING. 

Under the old method of drjdng, the scrap is spread on a plat- 
form made of closely fitting boards or concrete, where it is exposed 
to the sun and air, two or three days usually being sufficient time for 
this form of drying when the weather is favorable. The scrap is 
turned over or stirred frequently so that it may all become thoroughly 
dried; the instrument used for this purpose is usually a wood-tooth 
harrow drawn by a horse. In the event of rain and at night, as 
protection fron; the dew, the scrap is collected into heaps and covered 
with tarpaulin. 

The hot-air drier is now almost universally used in meahaden 
factories. At some-few points, because of the strenuous protest of 
summer residents against the disagreeable odor emitted by the hot- 
air drier, the scrap is treated with crude sulphuric acid and sold as 
"acidulated scrap"; or In some cases it is dried during the winter 
after the departure of the summer residents. The acid is usually 
applied as the scrap is being conveyed to the shed in which the 
acidulated scrap is stored; it may flow in a small stream from a 
lead-lined tank set near by, or may be poured from a dipper by a 
man standing near the conveyor box. The estimated quantity used 
is 1 to 1^ gallons to 500 pounds of scrap. The acid dissolves the bone 
and also preserves the scrap by preventing the development of flies 
and other insects. 

The pressed fish remains on the floor of the room below the press- 
room, where it is deposited after leaving the presses, until the follow- 
ing morning, when it is shoveled to a conveyor, usually of the chain 
type with wood flights placed at intervals of about 2 feet, and car- 
ried to the hopper of the drier. The drier is generally set under a 
shed built apart from the main factory building as a precaution 
against setting fire to the building should the intense heat in the 
drier fire the scrap. The direct-heat rotary drier is a revolving 
cylindrical iron or steel shell of various sizes, through which hot 
furnace gases pass, generally under forced draft produced by a fan 
at the side of the furnace. The cylinder has 12 spiral flights or 
shelves, each 8 inches wide, attached to its inner surface and running 
the entire length; these add to the rigidity of the cylinder and also 
lift the scrap to the highest point of the rotation and shower it 



20 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

tlirough the hot furnace gases. The wet scrap and the gases enter 
the cylinder at the same end, thus giving the wettest scrap the 
advantage of coming in contact with the hottest gases and materially 
economizing both fuel and time. The cyUnder is encircled by two 
steel tires, wliich are securely fastened to it, each resting on a set of 
four steel rollers, which in turn rest on brick foundations.' 

The power for rotating the drier is imparted first to these rollers by 
means of a shaft and from them by friction to the tires, or by the use 
of a spur pinion meshing with a large spur-gear ring encirclmg the 
drier. The brick furnace, which is provided with an automatic 
stoker, consumes about 5 tons of coal a day; its size is 9 by 10 feet, 
and it is built about the front or feed end of the drier, which is set 
about 9 inches higher at this point than at the other end, so that the 
trend of the scrap will be toward the lower and discharge end, as- 
sisted, of course, by the forced draft which blows it through as the 
flights referred to above lift it as the cylinder revolves. The lower 
end enters a brick chimney-like chamber 8 feet wide by 12 feet long; 
this serves as an outlet for the hot air and the vapor and also as a 
settling chamber for the dust coming from the dried scrap. A drier, 
5i feet in diameter and 40 feet long, with a capacity of 600,000 fish 
per hour, costs $2,300; one 50 feet long, with a capacity of 80,000 
fish per hour, costs $2,600, exclusive of the brickwork of the furnace 
and chimney, which costs about $350, and an engine of about 25 
horsepower to run it. It is necessary to give close attention during 
the operation of the hot-air drier in order to guard against burning 
the scrap by having too much heat and also to keep heat enough to 
dry it thoroughly. It is sometimes necessary to run it through the 
second time if the first passage is too rapid. The scrap dried by this 
process is much darker in color than that dried on platforms, no 
doubt because it is somewhat scorched by the intense heat of the 
furnace. 

The scrap drops l^rom the drier into a screw conveyor, which passes 
through the wall of the chimney, and is taken up by a chain conveyor 
to be carried to the scrap room. The box in which this conveyor 
moves is usually placed close under the roof of the building and is 
provided with traps or shdes which may be drawn and the scrap 
deposited in any part of the room desired. Twelve thousand to 
fifteen thousand fish will make 1 ton of scrap; the quantity made 
from one milhon fish varies from 75 to 85 tons. 

Fish scrap is used almost entirely for fertilizing purposes; a negli- 
gible quantity may be used for chicken feed and as cattle food. The 
major portion is sold to the fertilizer mixing plants at various places, 
a large percentage being handled by the Baltimore dealers. Samples 
are sent to the prospective purchasers, who analyze it and fix the 
price according to the percentage of ammonia contained m it, which 



MENHADEN INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 21 

usually runs 10 to 12 units. Several of the menhaden factories have 
estabHshed their own fertilizer plants and market all of their fish 
scrap combined with other fertilizer materials under their private 
brand names. Acidulated scrap is generally shipped in bulk in ves- 
sels, but the dried scrap is usually handled in bags, which are furnished 
by the mixing plants to which it has been sold. The bags are mostly 
secondhand and of no particular size or quality. Some years ago 
farmers hving in the vicinity of the fish factories frequently used the 
crude or green scrap for fertihzing their land, but that custom has 
been practically abandoned during recent years. 

During the year 1912 there were manufactured 50,885 tons of dry 
scrap, valued at $1,532,994; 37,536 tons of acidulated scrap, valued 
at $603,446; and 99 tons of green scrap, valued at $1,725. 

In the endeavor to eluninate the obnoxious odor emanating from 
the hot-air drier, one of the factory men has evolved the idea of build- 
ing a frame shed immediately back of and of a similar size to the 
brick chamber or chimney referred to above and closing the top of 
the chimney so that the dust and vapor can not escape at that point, 
but must pass on through a passageway into the shed. In this shed, 
which may be called a condensing house, is a series of vertical baffles 
over which are arranged perforated water pipes ; the water sprmkled 
from these pipes condenses, to some degree, the vapor as it enters 
and circulates through the building and also dampens the dust and 
prevents it blowing over the neighborhood. The water is carried off 
through an outlet in the floor. 

OIL. 

The oily and aqueous liquid flows from the press to the floor, which 
is made of concrete in most of the recently built plants, and on to a 
trough leading out to the tanks where the separating is accomplished. 
It first passes through the receiving tank, where a considerable quan- 
tity of the sohd matter forced from the press with the liquid is pre- 
cipitated and drawn off through an opening in the bottom of the tank. 
The water and oil are separated here to some degree. 

As the Uquid flows through the series of tanks the separation is 
made more complete in each one; it may flow directly over the edge 
of one tank into the next or into a trough built on the inside of the 
tank along the side next to the one to receive the oil; the latter 
arrangement is sometimes called a ''seH-skimmer." As an aid in 
forcing the oil to the surface and out, an additional supply of water 
is sometimes let into the tanks through a hose, the open end of which 
is placed near the bottom so as to avoid disturbing the surface. Hot 
water is preferable for this purpose, because when cold it chills 
the oil. Another method, used chiefly in drawing the oil from 
the cooking tanks, is the use of a jointed iron pipe, called the 



22 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

"leader," passing through the bottom of the tank. The open end or 
top may be raised or lowered to any desired distance beneath the 
surface and the oil drawn off without disturbing the water beneath. 
A pump is usually used in comiection with this arrangement. The 
hquid is usually hot when coming from the presses and requires no 
heating m the receiving tanks. Some of the factories, however, have 
mstalled perforated pipes in the bottom of these so that heat may be 
apphed if necessary. 

The separating tanks all have a similar arrangement of pipes placed 
under false bottoms, though only sufficient steam is applied in these 
to keep the liquid hot, usually about 125° to 150°. The water is 
drawn from the receiving and separating tanks by means of a '^ coffee 
pot" or siphon box 6 by 12 inches in size, built against the inside of 
the tanks, with the lower end opening about 6 inches from the bottom 
of the tank. The water, entering here, passes up through the box and 
out at the top.' By the time the oil passes from the last of the series 
of separating tanks to the cooking tanks it is practically free of water. 
It is then cooked to the boiling point by steam injected from the per- 
forated pipes placed in the bottom of the tanks, 20 to 30 minutes 
usually being sufficient time for the cooking process. 

After the cooking the oil is sometimes drawn into "coohng tanks," 
but more frequently it is pumped directly to the storage tanks, which are 
usually made of metal and are located some distance from the factory. 
These tanks are without cover, so that the oil may have the benefit of 
the sun and rain, which improves it by bleachmg and washmg. Some 
of the factories have what are known as ''catch-all" tanks, into which 
all the. water from the separating and other tanks is run and heated by 
means of steam introduced by the same arrangement of pipes as has 
been described above, so that any remaining oil may be extracted. 
It is said that there is sometimes a considerable quantity of oil saved 
by this process. The sediment collecting in the bottom of the tanks 
durmg the separating and cooking process, consisting of fine particles 
of flesh, is called gurry"; this is sprinkled with diluted sulphuric 
acid, either before or after being conveyed to the gurry -press room, to 
facilitate the separation of the remaining oil from the flesh particles. 
It is then cooked 20 to 30 minutes by steam injected by the process 
above described, and while hot is pressed. 

Two forms of presses are used for the gurry. The one most fre- 
quently found is very simple in construction; it consists of an iron 
framework about 10 feet high, forming "bays," each 28 mches wide, 
in which are a number of steel plates; the gurry is put into canvas 
bags, about 2 gallons to each; the mouths of the bags are not sewed, 
but are folded in such a manner as to prevent the semisohd gurry 
running out. Two bags are placed on each plate, with a total of 100 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 811 



Plate VI 




TWO-BAY OIL PRESS FOR GURRY. 



U. S. B. F.— Doc. 811. 



Plate VII. 




MENHADEN INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 23 

to 125 to each bay. The pressure is apphed by a lever attached to a 
pinion working in an upright rack, the lower end of which fits in the 
head of the press. The bays are usually filled and ready for the pres- 
sure by noon, and by evening the process has been completed. The 
residue, which is a thin, hard cake of scrap, is removed and thrown 
into the scrap heap, it not being necessary to run it through the drier. 
The manufacturers of this press can furnish as many bays as are de- 
sired by the menhaden factories; a one-bay press costs $70; two 
bays, $140, and so on; these prices being exclusive of the steel plates, 
which cost 85 cents each, and the bags. 

The economic value of the gurry presses is evident when it is con- 
sidered that one plant operating a three-bay press gets about 10 
gallons of oil and several hundred pounds of scrap a day from the 
process. The gurry, before pressmg, is said to contain equal parts of 
oil, water, and scrap. The other apparatus which is used in several 
factories for pressing gurry is a filter press consisting of a series of 
chambers, 50 in number, formed by recessed plates each 30 inches 
square. From each side of these plates projecting lugs rest on a pair 
of parallel bars which are fitted in the frame at each end. The press 
stands 4 feet high and is 12 feet long. The gurry is pumped in 
through a channel 3 inches in diameter in the head of the press and 
distributed over the surface of the filtering medium, which is simply 
heavy canvas placed between' the plates referred to above. The 
liquid passes through the canvas and runs down and out through 
cored channels in the lower part of the plates and through outlet 
cocks to the trough leadmg to the oil tanks. The advantage of 
having a separate cock on each plate is that in case one of the cloths 
should break, that particular plate may be shut off and the filtration 
need not be interrupted. The solid matter, being retained on the 
surface of the canvas, gradually fills the chambers until a sohd cake 
is formed in each; the press is then opened, and these are removed 
and thrown into the scrap heap. The pressure can be regulated by 
an arrangement which diverts the gurry to the tank from which it 
has been pumped instead of running it on into the press. 

These presses have a capacity of 60 barrels of gurry in 24 hours; 
one "pressing" can be accompUshed in about 3^ hours. The canvas 
is removed and thoroughly cleaned at least once a day, and an extra 
set of these is always kept on hand. The gurry in its natural state is 
so thin that it would run through the press too rapidly, and to guard 
against this it is necessary to use a filler which gives it a greater con- 
sistency. Maple sawdust is generally used for this purpose, the pro- 
portion being 2^ to 3 bushels to 10 barrels of gurry. 

As the oil flows from the gurry press it is first run into a tank near 
by, and from there it is pumped to the oil room, where it is rewashed. 



24 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

and if it is found to be sour it is boiled again. It is then generally 
run to the storage tanks with the other oil. It is the opinion of 
some of the oil experts that it should be kept separate, as it is of a 
darker color and inferior quality, but there is such a small quantity 
of it, as compared with the other oil, that the operators do not bother 
to provide separate tanks for it. 

The gurry is pressed in most of the factories north of Virginia, but 
only one plant in that State used such a press prior to 1912. The 
gurry in the North Carolina factories is not used, but is run overboard 
with the water from the oil tanks. 

The yield of oil varies greatly on different parts of the coast, and 
also from year to year and at different seasons. The fish are always 
larger and fatter during the fall than at any other season, conse- 
quently there is a greater yield of oil during that period. The fish 
taken from northern waters produce more than those from southern 
waters; the writer visited one of the northern factories during August, 
1913, and was told that a short time previous to his visit they had 
made 20 gallons, and that the average yield for July had been 16.5 
gallons, per 1,000 fish. The maximum yield for the Middle Atlantic 
States is about 15 gallons, though it is usually less; in the early part 
of the season it is very much less than that amount. The south 
Atlantic fish rarely produce more than 8 gallons per 1,000 fish, and 
frequently it is less than 1 gallon during the early spring fisliing. 
The average number of gallons of oil made from 1,000 fish during 
the season of 1912 was as foUows: Connecticut, 11.73; New York, 
11.36; New Jersey, 5.08; Delaware, 7.72; Virginia, 3.72; and North 
Carolina, 1.98. 

The manner in which the oil is handled in the process of separating 
and cooking has a great deal to do with the amount produced. 
While the principle is practically the same at all the factories, some 
oil tenders can extract a greater quantity than others, and also 
make a superior grade. 

Practically all of the crude menhaden oil is sold to dealers in New 
York, New Bedford, Baltimore, and Boston, where it is refined, 
bleached, and winter-pressed. The grades, as produced by the 
refineries, are "Extra bleached winter fish oil," "Bleached winter 
fish oil," "Light winter-pressed fish oU," and "Brown winter-pressed 
fish oil." Some is exported in the crude state, but only when the 
prices in this country are especially attractive or when the foreign 
oils are not available. It is graded from samples sent by the manu- 
facturers to the oil dealers, according to the color and condition. 
The standard grades are A, B, C, and D, varying from a clear amber 
color to a dark brown, or in some cases nearly black, depending 
chiefly on the condition of the fish when reaching the factory. When 
fresh they usually produce a clear, sweet oil; if they are putrified the 



MENHADEN INDUSTRY OP THE ATLANTIC COAST. 25 

oil is dark, and if the decomposition has reached a well-developed 
state, it is likely to be '^ off in smell," having a disagreeable odor as of 
decayed fish. 

The quality of oil made from fat fish is superior to that from thin 
ones. There is a noticeable difference in what is made from fish 
caught in Chesapeake Bay and that made from fish caught by the 
same fishermen at sea, the latter being of a superior quality. Grade 
A from sea fish is one to three shades lighter than the same grade 
from the bay fish. Menhaden oil is used chiefly in the manufacture 
of paints and varnishes. Some is also used in tempering steel and 
tanning leather, though a very small quantity is used for the latter 
purpose as compared with what was used in former years, because 
the curriers are now using mineral oils and compounds which are 
less expensive than fish oil. 

An apparatus for evaporating the water which is separated from 
the oil and known as "stick water" has recently been installed in 
one of the factories. It is an oval-shaped iron shell standing 8 feet 
high, 4^ feet wide, and 18 feet over all. The working part consists 
of a cylinder of 96 tubes, held in place by bearings at each end of the 
casing and made to revolve by means of gearing on the outer ends of 
the hollow shaft. Steam is introduced at the end of the rotating tube 
shaft and the condensed water is drawn off at the opposite end. 
The construction of the drainage from the steam tubes is such as to 
prevent the water collecting in any part of the steam drum or tubes. 
The material to be evaporated is let in through an opening at the 
bottom of the machine, at the same end the steam enters, and the 
finished product is drawn off through an opening in the opposite end. 
The vapor arising from the material is drawn off by a vacuum pump 
attached by pipe to an opening at the top of the machine. One 
20-horsepower pump is sufficient for two evaporating machines. 
Exhaust steam can be used to do the evaporating with this machine 
to a decided advantage, as it will do the work as well as low-pressure 
live steam. The residue or "stick" will average about 9 per cent 
ammonia; it is a brownish, sticky substance and can be used as a 
fertilizer when mixed with other fertiUzer materials. The writer 
saw some at the plant referred to that had been mixed with fish 
scrap — 1 pail of stick to 4 pails of acidulated scrap and another 
mixture of 1 pail of stick to 3 pails of scrap. It seemed to be well 
mixed and was not "gummy," though it would probably have to be 
dried before it could be placed on the market. The analysis of 
"stick" is: Moisture, 15.99; grease, 0.16; ammonia, 9.24. This 
machine has been used at reduction plants with success, and it would 
seem that some of the larger menhaden plants might use it to ad- 
vantage. The cost of a macliine is approximately $4,000. 

/ 



26 MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 

FISHERMEN. 

The crews of the northern steamers are made up chiefly of New- 
foundlanders and Nova Scotians. Those on the southern vessels 
are mostly natives, and, with the exception of the captains, mates, 
engineers, firemen, and some of the strikers, are colored. Many of 
the steamers also carry white pilots, because the captains are 
too busy directing the fishing operations to tend the wheel. The 
men, especially in the south, usually hve adjacent to the factory for 
which they are fishing and go home as frequently as their work will 
permit. The captain, who must be a practical fisherman, in addition 
to having a knowledge of the coast, receives no stipulated salary but 
is paid a bonus of 12^ to 18^ cents for each 1,000 fish caught. The 
monthly pay received by the other members of the crew is as follows: 
Mate, $100, or $50 and a bonus of 4 cents per 1,000 fish, or $25 and a 
bonus of 5 cents per 1,000 fish; pilot, $85 to $90; engineer, $90 to 
$125; assistant engineer, $60 to $80; firemen, $35 to $45; striker, 
$60, or $35 to $40 and a bonus of 1 or U cents per 1,000 fish; cook, 
$60 to $75; and $35 to $45 for the fishermen. In addition to this the 
employers furnish subsistence for the entire crew. The custom in 
the fisheries of North Carolina differs somewhat from the above wage 
scale, in that the entire crew works on shares and they also find their 
own food; seventy-five to eighty-five cents is allowed the crew for 
each 1 ,000 fish taken. Of this, the captain gets 1 5 cents, and the others 
5 cents each, but the captain usually gives the mate an additional 2^ 
cents, the cook 1 cent, and the engineer 1 to 2 cents per 1,000. 

FACTORY EMPLOYEES. 

The men employed in the fish factories of the Chesapeake Bay 
region are secured chiefly from brokers in Baltimore; they are of 
various nationalities, including German, Irish, Pohsh, and Nor- 
wegian; the writer saw a man at one of the Reedville plants said to 
be an Indian and a very good workman. Those on the Delaware and 
New Jersey plants are practically the same class as in Virginia and 
are brought from Baltimore and Philadelphia, Many of the men at 
the New York factories are Portuguese. 

In addition to subsistence furnished them, the monthly pay of the 
men at the various factories is as follows: Foremen, $50 to $125; 
assistant foremen, $40 to $80; engineer, $35 to $100; assistant engi- 
neer, $25 to $60; firemen, $30 to $40; oil tenders, $30 to $100; 
machinist, $50 to $100; seine menders, $35 to $100; cook, $60 to 
$90. There are also a number of others doing general work about 
the factory at wages ranging from $15 to $40. It is quite difficult to 
hold the latter class of men any length of time, and as an induce- 
ment some of the operators offer a bonus of $5 per month if they re- 
main throughout the season. This custom, however, prevails in 
only a few plants in Virginia. 



MENHADEN INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 27 

LAWS GOVERNING MENHADEN FISHING. 

The legislatures of most of the States in which the menhaden in- 
dustry is prosecuted have adopted laws governing the work. In New 
York a hcense of $50 is required for each steamer of 50 tons or more, 
and $25 for every other vessel engaged in fishing with nets in the tidal 
waters of the State for the purpose of making oil or fertilizer from the 
fish product taken; and a fine of not less than $100 is provided for 
taking food fish for the purpose of converting them into oil and 
fertihzer. The New Jersey law imposes a license of $100 for each 
steam vessel of not more than 50 tons net, $125 for each steam vessel 
of over 50 tons and not more than 100 tons net, and $200 for each 
steam vessel of over 100 tons net taking menhaden with purse seines. 
The law in Delaware requires the payment of a license of $100 for 
each steamer not over 125 net tons, and $200 for each s^amer over 
125 net tons employed in the taking of menhaden by means of purse 
seines. 

The menhaden fishermen of Maryland are required to pay a license 
of $25 for each net used and are not allowed to fish with such nets at 
any point north of a fine drawn east from Sandy Point to Love Point. 
The penalty for violation of this law is a fine of $50 and confiscation 
of the boat and all the fishing gear. The Virginia law is the most 
severe of all the menhaden fishing laws; it states that ''it shall be 
unlawful to take, catch, or round up with a purse net for the purpose 
of manufacturing into guano, food fish to the amount greater than one 
per centum of the whole catch without immediately opening the net 
and turning loose any such food fish while yet alive; or for any 
steamer or vessel licensed for the purpose of meiihaden fishing to 
catch any food fish for the purpose of marketing same; or for any 
person, firm, or corporation to have in possession food fish to a 
greater amount than one per centum of the bulk for the purpose of 
manufacturing them into guano or oil, except that herring caught in 
pound nets may be marketed and used for the purpose of such 
manufacture. Any person, firm, or corporation violating any portion 
of this section, or having in their possession as much as one per 
centum of food fish among menhaden caught for the purpose of 
manufacturing into guano or oil, shall be fined not less than one 
thousand nor more than three thousand dollars, and the license on 
such person's boat or net shall be revoked for the remainder of the 
season." It is beheved that the menhaden fishermen of Virginia 
are in sympathy with this statute and endeavor to abide by it. The 
hcense for a steamer fishing in the State waters is $100, and non- 
residents are excluded. The North Carolina statutes provide no 
license for fishing with purse seines for menhaden. 

o 



